INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

 Indus valley civilization , Indus valley , Harappan civilization  

Indus Valley Civilization , also known as the Indus Civilization, was a bronze age civilization in the  northwestern regions  of south Asia , lasting from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE and in its mature form from 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE .

The Indus Civilization was the earliest known urban culture of the Indian Subcontinent --- one of the world s three earliest civilizations , along with Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt.

The civilization was first identified in 1921 at Harappa in the Punjab region and then in 1922 at Mohenjo-daro (Mohenjodaro), near the Indus River in the Sindh (Sind) region. Both sites are in present-day Pakistan, in Punjab and Sindh provinces, respectively. The ruins of Mohenjo-daro were designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1980.

Subsequently, vestiges of the civilization were found as far apart as Sutkagen Dor in southwestern Balochistan province, Pakistan, near the shore of the Arabian Sea, about 300 miles (480 km) west of Karachi; and at Ropar (or Rupar), in eastern Punjab state, northwestern India, at the foot of the Shimla Hills some 1,000 miles (1,600 km) northeast of Sutkagen Dor. Later exploration established its existence southward down the west coast of India as far as the Gulf of Khambhat (Cambay), 500 miles (800 km) southeast of Karachi, and as far east as the Yamuna (Jumna) River basin, 30 miles (50 km) north of Delhi. It is thus decidedly the most extensive of the world’s three earliest civilizations, even though Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations both began somewhat before it.

The Indus civilization is known to have consisted of two large cities, Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, and more than 100 towns and villages, often of relatively small size. The two cities were each perhaps originally about 1 mile (1.6 km) square in overall dimensions, and their outstanding magnitude suggests political centralization, either in two large states or in a single great empire with alternative capitals, a practice having analogies in Indian history. It is also possible that Harappa succeeded Mohenjo-daro, which is known to have been devastated more than once by exceptional floods. The population was estimated to be 23,500–35,000 in Harappa and 35,000–41,250 in Mohenjo-daro. The southern region of the civilization, on the Kathiawar Peninsula and beyond, appears to be of later origin than the major Indus sites.ng body of archaeological evidence, the social and political structures of the Indus “state” remain objects of conjecture. The apparent craft specialization and localized craft groupings at Mohenjo-daro, along with the great divergence in house types and size, point toward some degree of social stratification. Trade was extensive and apparently well-regulated, providing imported raw materials for use at internal production centres, distributing finished goods throughout the region, and arguably culminating in the establishment of Harappan “colonies” in both Mesopotamia and Badakhshan. The remarkable uniformity of weights and measures throughout the Indus lands, as well as the development of such presumably civic works as the great granaries, implies a strong degree of political and administrative control over a wide area. Further, the widespread occurrence of inscriptions in the Harappan script almost certainly indicates the use of a single lingua franca. Nevertheless, in the absence of inscriptions that can be read and interpreted, it is inevitable that far less is known of these aspects of the Indus civilization than those of contemporaneous Mesopotamia.

Indus Valley Civilization Important Sites

• In India: Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Lothal, Dholavira, Rangpur, Surkotda (Gujarat), Banawali (Haryana), Ropar (Punjab). In Pakistan: Harappa (on river Ravi), Mohenjodaro (on Indus River in Sindh), Chanhudaro (in Sindh).

• The civilization was first discovered during an excavation campaign under Sir John Hubert Marshall in 1921–22 at Harappa following the discovery of seals by J Fleet.
• Harappan ruins were discovered by Marshall, Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni and Madho Sarup Vats.
• Mohenjodaro ruins were excavated for the first time by R.D. Banerjee, E. J. H. MacKay and Marshall.
• The Indus Valley cities show a level of sophistication and advancement not seen in other contemporary civilizations.
• Most cities had similar patterns. There were two parts: a citadel and the lower town.
• Most cities had a Great Bath.
• There were also granaries, 2-storied houses made of burnt bricks, closed drainage lines, excellent stormwater, and wastewater management system, weights for measurements, toys, pots, etc.
• A large number of seals have been discovered.
• Agriculture was the most important occupation. The first civilization to cultivate cotton.
• Animals were domesticated like sheep, goats, and pigs.
• Crops were wheat, barley, cotton, ragi, dates, and peas.
• Trade was conducted with the Sumerians.
• Metal products were produced including those with copper, bronze, tin, and lead. Gold and silver were also known. Iron was not known to them.
• No structures like temples or palaces have been found.
• The people worshipped male and female deities. A seal which was named ‘Pashupati Seal’ has been excavated and it shows an image of a three-eyed figure. Marshall believed this to be an early form of Lord Shiva.
• Excellent pieces of red pottery designed in black have been excavated. Faience was used to make beads, bangles, earrings, and vessels.
• Civilization also was advanced in making artworks. A statuette named ‘Dancing Girl’ has been found from Mohenjodaro and is believed to be 4000 years old. A figure of a bearded Priest-King has also been found from Mohenjodaro.
• Lothal was a dockyard.
• Disposal of the dead was by burial in wooden coffins. Later on, in the H Symmetry culture, bodies were cremated in urns.
• The Indus Valley script has not yet been deciphered.

Architecture, Town Planning and Civil Engineering of Harappan Civilization

The cities of the Harappan civilization were very well planned and beautifully constructed, with baked bricks used to construct houses and buildings in rows on both sides of the road. Some houses were also built in the streets. The houses built in cities used to be five feet in length and 97 feet in width. Their buildings also had two-roomed houses. Some houses had private bathrooms with pottery in the walls, which also provided water drainage. In some cases, there was a provision of a crib to sit in the toilet.

Architecture, Town Planning and Civil Engineering of Harappan Civilization

In the Indus Valley Civilization, the drainage system was in very systematic order, the drainage system was used for the best convenience in every household. The location of the water drainage from each house was made of bricks. The architecture of well-planned urban centres based on fixed-layout patterns with scientific roads; Drainage systems (with the use of corbelled technology), public structures (such as granaries and great baths), were far ahead of time and precursors to the modern concept of architecture and civil engineering. The Harappan civilization also built the world’s first tide port at the head of the Gulf of Cambay in Lothal, Gujarat, proving their high level of knowledge about the water flow and flow of tides.

Irrigation System of Harappan Civilization

Research published in the Journal of Archaeological Science confirms that the Indus people were the first to use complex multi-cropping strategies in both seasons, growing foods during the summer such as rice, millet, and beans, etc. and in winter wheat, barley, and pulses, which required separate sorting management. Researchers also found evidence for a completely different domination process of rice in ancient South Asia, around the wild species Origa Niva. This led to the local development of a mixture of “Wetland” and “Dryland” agriculture in the local Oryza sativa Indica rice agriculture.

Although the cities were situated on the river banks, they had a new irrigation system that brought them size and prosperity. Irrigation systems included artificial reservoirs (such as Girnar) and early canal systems.

The decline of Indus Valley Civilization

• Causes of the decline of this civilization have not been firmly established. Archaeologists now believe that the civilization did not come to an abrupt end but gradually declined. People moved eastwards and cities were abandoned. Writing and trade declined.
• Mortimer Wheeler suggested that the Aryan invasion led to the decline of the Indus Valley. This theory has now been debunked.
• Robert Raikes suggests that tectonic movements and floods caused the decline.
• Other causes cited include a drying up of the rivers, deforestation, and destruction of the green cover. It is possible that some cities were destroyed by floods but not all. It is now accepted that several factors could have led to the decline of the Indus Valley civilization.
• New cities emerged only about 1400 years later.

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